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1. Introduction TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) ports are virtual channels that establish connections between devices in a network. They are identified by a 16-bit number ranging from 0 to 65535. Each port is associated with a specific process on a device connected to the network. The importance of TCP ports in networking cannot be overstated. They allow for the proper functioning of various internet protocols, such as HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) and FTP (File Transfer Protocol), which are used to transfer data between devices. …Read More

1. Introduction to Nmap Nmap, short for Network Mapper, is a powerful open-source tool for network exploration, management, and security auditing. Developed by Gordon Lyon, also known by his pseudonym Fyodor, Nmap is used by network administrators, security professionals, and pentesters around the world for a wide range of tasks, such as network inventory, managing service upgrade schedules, monitoring host or service uptime, and finding open ports on remote machines. …Read More

1. Introduction One of the critical responsibilities of the application layer is to provide the interface between the applications and the underlying network. This is done by using a set of application-level protocols defining the rules for how applications and services can communicate. The most common protocols in the application layer include HTTP, FTP, and SMTP. The importance of the application layer in network communication cannot be overstated. It is responsible for ensuring that the transmitted data between applications is appropriately formatted and understood by both the sender and the receiver. …Read More

1. Introduction According to a recent study conducted by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), the presentation layer is responsible for ensuring that the data is in a format that is acceptable to the application layer. This includes data compression and decompression, encryption and decryption, and character set conversion. In today’s data-driven world, the ability to effectively manage and secure data is becoming increasingly important, and understanding the role of the presentation layer in this process is crucial. …Read More

1. Introduction In this article, we will discuss the purpose and function of the session layer, which is the fifth layer of the OSI model. The purpose of the session layer is to establish, maintain, and terminate communication sessions between devices in a network. It synchronises communication between devices and manages data flow control, ensuring reliable communication between devices. Some protocols used at the session layer include SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol) and SPX (Sequenced Packet Exchange). …Read More

1. Introduction to the transport layer and its role in network communication The transport layer is one of the layers in the OSI model, which is used to understand how networking protocols communicate. It enables end-to-end communication between network devices, including error checking, flow control, and data packet segmentation. The transport layer is critical in networking because it ensures that data is efficiently and reliably transferred between devices. It contributes to a dependable connection by checking for faults and retransmitting data packets as needed, as well as by regulating data flow to avoid network congestion. …Read More

Introduction Protecting sensitive information from unauthorized disclosure or access is defined as confidentiality. Safeguarding sensitive data’s privacy is critical to prevent unauthorized individuals from accessing or using it. Data precision and exhaustiveness are related to data integrity. Therefore, it is critical to maintaining data integrity to ensure it is trustworthy and reliable. The ability of authorized users to obtain information when needed is referred to as availability. Therefore, it is critical to ensure that information systems are available to support company activities and meet user needs. …Read More

1. Introduction The network layer is a layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, which is a framework that defines how different computer systems and devices communicate with each other over a network. The network layer is responsible for routing data between different devices on a network, using logical addressing (such as IP addresses) to determine the best path for the data to take. It is also responsible for maintaining connectivity between devices and enabling communication. …Read More

1. Introduction to data link layer security The data connection layer is the second layer of the OSI model, which is used to comprehend how different networking protocols communicate. It is responsible for error detection and correction, flow management, and data packet framing to establish a dependable connection between devices on a local area network (LAN). Cybercrime has contributed to a loss of $6 trillion annually by 2021, with a significant portion of attacks targeting the data connection layer, according to research by Cybersecurity Ventures. …Read More

1. Introduction to the Cyber Kill Chain The Cyber Kill Chain is a paradigm that depicts the phases of a cyber attack, beginning with reconnaissance and concluding with the execution of operations against targets. Understanding the Cyber Kill Chain enables organisations to defend against and mitigate the effects of cyber assaults more effectively. Seven stages comprise the Cyber Kill Chain: reconnaissance, weaponisation, delivery, exploitation, installation, command and control, and objective operations. …Read More